ART AND ARCHITECTURE

(A TOUR OF State-wise CENTERS OF JAINA ART AND ARCHITECTURE)

The Jainas have been amongst the foremost in contributing to the field of art and architecture since early days. The images of -Tirthankar Rasbhadeva and the figures of standing or seated nude Yogins found inscribed on some terracotta seats, relies of the prehistoric Indus Valley Civilization, discovered at Moheniodaro, as well as nude Harrappan red stone statue are almost equally old. The latter is remarkably akin to the polished stone torso of a Jina image from Lohanipur (Patna), which is ascribed to the Maurya times (4th c. B.C.). King Kharavela of Kalinga reinstalled the Jaina image, which had been taken away by Nanda to Magadha in (4th C. B.C.) During the Satavahana period (60 B.C. to 225 A.D.) Mathura and Saurastra were the main centres. The earliest Mathura sculpture represented by Kankalitila where from Ayagaptta, Stupa, images, and other Jaina cultural material are recovered. Gandhara art and Mathura art belong to Kusana period (First B.C. to 2nd A.D.) in which Jainism flourished to Mathura and the Ardhaphalaka sect, Yapaniya Sangha and Nagara art came into existence.

Gupta period (4th to 7th C.A.D.) is said to be the golden period of ancient Indian Culture. Hadgupta, Siddhasena, Harisena, Ravikirti, Pujyapada, Patrakesad, Udyotanasud and other Jain acaryas have been in existence during the period. Karnataka, Mathura, Hastinapur, Saurastra, Avanti, Ahiechatra, Shinnarnala, Kausambi, Devagumpha, Vidisa, Sravasti, Varanasi, Vaisali, Pataliputra, Rajagraha, Campa etc. were the main Jaina centres of art and architecture. After the Gupta period, Kakkula, Vatsaraja, and Mahendrapala were the Jaina kings in the Pratihara dynasty. King Munja, Navasahasanka and Bhoja were followers of Jainism. Dhanapala, Affitagati, Manikyanandi, Prabhacandra, Asadhara, Dhananjaya etc. had contributed to the literary field during the same period. Chittod was the capital of Paramaras where Kalakacharya and Haribhadra devoted their lives for the development of Jaina art and architecture.

During Chandela dynasty, Khajuraho, Devagadh, Mahoba, Madanapur, Chanderi, Ahar, Papora, and Gwaliar became famous for their Jaina art. Some important inscriptions, Toranas, images and other sculptural material are found in Tripuri..

Bihar has been a prominent state since very early days with regard to Jaina culture. It is the Parinirvanabhumi of so many -Tirthankars and is enriched through Jaina statues, relies, sculpture etc. at Rajagrih, Nalanda, Parsvanatha hill, Simhabhumi, Barabar hill, Patna, Pavapuri etc. The earliest Jaina images are recovered in Bengal from Surohar and Mandoil of Mathura style. The images of Jaina Tirthankars found in Orissa at Udaigiri-Khandagiri, and some other places such as Keonjhar, Mayurabhanja, Jaipur, Cuttack are very beautiful from artistic point or view.

Gujarat and Rajasthan have been strongholds of Jainism since an early time. Satrunjaya, Girnar, are Siddhakhsetras of Jainas. Rastrakutas and Chalukyas, Pratiharas, Paramaras, Chauhan and other dynasties patronised Jainism and its art and architecture. Hemacandracharyawas a court poet of Jayasimha and Kumarapala. Vastupala and Tejapala who were ministers of Baghelas of Solanki branch built a large number of Jaina temples at Girinar, Abu, Satrunjaya, etc. They are also found in large number at Ranakapur, Udaipur, Sirohi, Jaisatmer, Jodhpur, Jaipur, Alwar and other places. The existence of Jainism in Punjab and Sindh can traced out long before the Christian era, from the sites of Mohanjodaro, Harappa, Taksasila, Simhapur, Sindhudesh, Lahore etc.

The inscriptional history of Jainism in Maharashtra starts with the Parle inscription of first C. A.D. which commences with 'Namo Arihantanam". Keljhar, Pavanar, Nagpur, Bhandara, Ramtek, Akola, Kar.anja, Achaipur, Latur,Bhadravati etc. are main Jain ancient sites with archaeological remains. Sirpur is famous for its artistic decoration. Malkhed was found inhabitated when Padalip- tacarya visited in about lst C.A.D. Jaina caves are found at Ellora, Nasik, Dharasiva, (Osmanabad) etc. Pratishtbanput, Belgaum, Kolhapur, aihole, Alaktakanagara, Kunthaigiri, Ardhapur, Kandbar, Karanataka (Karad), Mahimagiri, Vatapi, Meghuni etc. have been main centres of Jainism where huge and magnificent Jaina temples idols and inscriptions are found. Mrgesavarvarman's inscription (450-478 A.D.) states that a huge donation was made to Digambar, Svetamabar, Kurcakas and Yapaniya. Belgaon and Kolhapur were also ruled over by Silaharas of Konkana who built their huge Jaina temples like Adataraditya, Satyavakya, Candraprabha, Ratta, etc. Vatapi, Ehol, Meguli were also Jaina centres of this period when Pulakesi First, Kirtivarman and Ravikirti constructed Jaina temples.

Andhra Pradesh has been a stronghold centre of Jainism. Acaryas Kundakunda (Ist C.A.D.), the spiritual leader of the time hails from Kondakunda situated on the border of Andhra Pradesh. King Vishnuvardhan of Chalukyas, Akalavarsa, Amoghavarsa, and Krashnaraja of Rashtrakutas, Bhima, Ganga Vijayaditya, Durgaraj etc. of Vengis, Tailapa, Vikramaditya of Badami Calukyas, some kings of Velanatichoda period patronised Jainism by way of constructing temples, Basadi and Vidyapeethas.  Some of them, afterwards, were occupied by Virasaivaitas and Lingayatas, who have been great destructors of Jaina monuments and the community as well.

Jainism in Karnataka goes back at least to Bhadrabahu and Chandragupta Maurya who migrated to South India via Ujjain with twelve thousand disciples due to severe calamity and famine in the North. Simhanandin, the Jainacarya, established Gangavadi dynasty. Jainism was its state religion for about seven hundred years during which hundreds of Jaina monuments were erected by the kings. Pujyapada, Prabhacandra, Jinasena, Gunanandi, Patrakesad, Puspadanta, Vidyanada, Anantavirya, Joindu etc. get the patronage of the dynasty. Of the kings the name of Rachamalia Satyavakya may be specially mentioned under whose reign Chamundaraya, his great minister erected the colossal statue of Gommetesvara Bahubali, the unparallel statue in the world. After Rashtrakutas Jainism got set back. One Vasava murdered his master Vijiala, the Kalacud Jaina king and perished Jainism and its adherents. He established an independent sect named Lingayatas and persecuted the Jainas. From Jaina archaeological standpoint, the main sites are Mangal, Nandidurga, Panditarahalli, Candrasala vasadi, Amarapur, Arkettar, Sarangipattam, Halebid, Kelasaur, Aihole, Marol, Honwad, Honnur, Kalholi, Mulguna, Lakkundi, Nagire, Biligi are the main places where the Jaina monuments are richly available.

Jainism entered in Tamilnadu most probably from Kalinga in about 4th C.B.C. Visakhaearya proceeds to Chola and Pandya countries with the entire Munisangha. It can be supported by the caverns containing beds carved out in the rock found in hills and mountains around the Pudukottai, Madura and Tinnevelly and rock-cut sculptures and inscriptions in the bills of the north Arcot district, which indicate the existence of Jainism in Tamil Nadu in 3rd c.B.C. Kanchi was one of the important seats of learning in South India. It was the capital of Pallvas who were mostly Jainas in early centuries. The inscriptions of Jinakanchi refers to some prominent Jina-acharyas of the city like Kundakunda, Samantabhadra, Jinachandra, Pujyapada, Akalanka, Anantavirya, Bhavanand, Mallisena etc. The North and South Arcot region is very rich from Jaina archaeological standpoint. Pancapandava, Trirurnalai, Vailimalai, Vidal, Villipuram, Chinglaput may be specially mentioned. Sittanavasal, Narttamalai, Tenimalai, Bommamalai, Malamala, Samanar Kudagu, etc. have been the Jaina centres since last two thousand years. Most of these places have paintings, and sculptures of Sittanavasala tradition, which may be compared with Ajanta and Sigirya. Some of the rock-cut temples like Samanar Kudagu have been converted into Vishnu temples.

Madura was the capital of Pandyas who took their favourable attitude towards Jainism. Its neighbouring hills Annaimalai, Nagarnalai,, Alagarmalai, Muttupatti, Eruvadi, etc. are very rich from Jaina sculptural and painting standpoint. It is a land of origin of Samgama literature. Tirukurala, Tolkappiyam, Naladiyara, Chintamani, Silakppadikaram, Nilakesi, Manimekhalai, Kurala etc. are the Jaina epics of early period. Pujyapada, Vairanandi, Aryanandi, Patrakesad etc. were the prominent Jainacharyas of the period. Afterwards Jainism was patronised by the Kadamba kings. In Tirinevelly region the Kalugumailai, Tiruchcharanattumalai, Nagarajaswami temple belonged to Jainas but they are under the control of Vaidikas.

Thus the survey of Jainism in South India gives an apparent picture of its position that it was there popular during the period of Tirthankar Mahavir or even earlier to him. The popularity augmented gradually and Digambar sect became the prominent one. During about l1th C. A.D., Vaisnavism, Alawara and Lingayatas came into existence and stood against Jainism that caused a serious blow to its propagation.

Jaina images, Ayagapttas, Stambhas, Toranas, Vedicas etc. were excavated from Kankhaltila in Mathura belonging to Kusana period. The Stupa made of bricks is called Devanirmita Stupa. The symbols are not traceable on these images, the Sarvatobhadra Pratimas. The names of Kaniska, Ruviska and Vasudeva are inscribed on these images. The unique Jaina image of Sarasvati may also be mentioned in this context. The Chausa bronzes, in some Jaina images in Lucknow and Patna museums, the Jaina remains at Vaibhara hill Raiagid and the bronzes of the Akota hoard are also belonging to this period. Some auspicious symbols like Phana, Srivatsa, Purnaganata, Svastika, Vardhmanaka, Matsya, Nandyavarta etc. are also inscribed on one of the Parsva images. The image of Jivantasvami may also be referred to the period. Then the crystallized forms of the iconography were transferred to rocks on hills like Vaibhara hill, Udaigiri bills in Sanchi and Udaigiri, Kalagumalai in South. Afterwards, the iconography became fixed.

In other words it can be said that the Jaina iconography was developed during the Gupta period in 4th century A.D. Decoration on Padapitha, Dharmacakera, Pararnesthis, Gandharva Yugala, Navagrahs, Triratnas, Bbamandala, and Astapratiharyas were in- cluded as the symbols of Jaina images. However, all the symbols could not be decided in the early Gupta period. The images of the period can be viewed in Mathura museum, Vesanagar, Budhicanderi, Deogarha, Rajagiri, Kumarahara, Vaisali and other places. Some more images of the Gupta period are found in Udaigiri, Vesanagara, Nacana (Patna) etc. with somewhat more decorated forms   ' Some of the bronzes of the Akota era, particularly the image of Jivantasvami in Kayotsarga pose bearing mukuta, Shujabandha, Kundala, Kangana, and the image of Ambika decorated with ornaments and Yaksa-Yaksis are the representative images of the period. Sasanadevatas, Drurn-player, a pair of elephants etc. were also included in the symbols.

In late Gupta period these symbols were more developed and in about 8th-gth c. A.D. all the symbols, Yaksa-Yaksis, Sasanadevidevatas, were fixed. Afterwards, Ksetrapalas, Dikpalas, Navagrahs, and Vidyadharas were also placed around the

Jaina images. Tantrism entered into Jaina iconography in about tenth century A.D. and as a result, the Yaksa-Yaksis etc. got their due place on the pedestal or around the Jaina images with more decorative sculptural surroundings. Sandy stone is widely used in about twelve century along with black and white marble. The bronze images are also popularly available of the period. In the fourteenth century the development of Jaina iconography stagnated and the decline started. This can be understood through perspective of iconographical peculiarities of tirthankars and their associates.

Temple art is of three types, Nagara, Vesara and Dravida. In Nagara style, the Garvagraha is quadrangular and its summit (Sikhara) is circular with Kalasa. It is used in Punjab, Himalaya, Rajasthan, Madhyapradesh, Orissa and Bengal. The Sikhara be- comes flat in Vesara style, which is found in Madhyabharat, and the temple gets the form of pillar in Dravidian style. The earliest Jaina temple is found at Lohanipur (Patna) of Maurya period. Then the temple art is available from the seventh century onwards. Painting has also been one of the best methods for expressing the ideas.

Thus it is abundantly clear that Jainism, one of the most ancient animistic Indigenous religions has been contributing constantly and unforgettably to the field of history and culture. Its philosophy, ethics, dogmas, spiritual disciplines and practices are based on truth and non-violence with the nature of humanistic approach, interreligious dialogue and understanding which can be easily perceived through its extensive and perennial literature. All the more conspicuous fact is that Jainism could not be elaborated here. However, the student of religion and culture can of course gather some pivotal points over the subject. The corroborative evidence can be further accumulated from the original sources, and comparative study can be made with other contemporary religions specially Buddhism which is more closer in all respects.